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Furthermore, short peptides such as Epitalon are typically unstable and degrade rapidly in vivo
however, the comprehension of its pathophysiological mechanisms and effective treatment strategies remains inadequate
The clock protein CRY (Sirt1 and 3 dependent) influences mitochondrial activity, reduces gluconeogenesis, and favors substrates for OXPHOS through glycolysis, enhancing ATP production (Poole and Ray, 2022)
In parallel, nonmitochondrial pathwaysincluding peroxisomal metabolism, ER stress, and NADPH oxidase activitycomplementarily generate ROS under pathological conditions or during specialized cellular processes, collectively driving oxidative damage across diverse cellular contexts (Figure 2)
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