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Different types of cells have different requirements for ATP, podocytes, endothelial cells and mesangial cells mainly use glucose for their energy supply, while renal tubular cells mainly use free fatty acids, glutamine, pyruvate, citrate and lactate as substrates for fuel supply through aerobic respiration ( 2 , and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD + ) is reduced to NADH ( 2.3 Aberrant changes in mitochondrial structure and function during AKI 2.3.1 Mitochondrial dysfunction Mitochondrial dysfunction in AKI is characterized by impairments in mitochondrial biogenesis, attenuation of mitophagy, disrupted mitochondrial dynamics, and reduced OXPHO activity (Figure 1) (Zhu et al., 2023