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In this review, we evaluated the overall changes to the intestinal flora alongside variations to the specific strains within the microbiota and established their association with PPI-related digestive disorders whilst detailing all possible mechanisms of action involved in this relationship (Figure 3)
activation of PI3K/AKT downstream pathway driving synaptogenesis and anti-apoptotic effects in hippocampus Regulatory status: not approved by the FDA or EMA
These peptides have not been proven safe or effective through the rigorous clinical trial process that FDA-approved drugs must pass
Metformin, commonly used in diabetes management, has been associated with reduced vitamin B12 absorption, potentially through effects on calcium-dependent vitamin B12-intrinsic factor absorption in the terminal ileum
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