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It remains unclear which neurons express the GLP-1Rs necessary for the anorexigenic effects of Ex-4 in vivo

Random-effects models were used to calculate pooled mean differences (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI)

To estimate the bioavailability of ingested carnitine, we first compared the fasting plasma carnitine before and after carnitine supplementation

Abbreviations GABA: Gamma-aminobutyric acid NMDA: N-methyl-D-aspartate HPA: Hypothalamicpituitaryadrenal AUDs: Alcohol use disorders MDD: Major depressive disorder CBT: Cognitive-behavioral therapy IL-6: Interleukin-6 TNF-: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha CRH: Corticotropin-releasing hormone ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging PET: Positron emission tomography SSRIs: Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ROS: Reactive oxygen species ADH: Alcohol dehydrogenase ALDH: Aldehyde dehydrogenase SOD: Superoxide dismutase NF-B: Nuclear factor kappa B IL-1: Interleukin-1 beta LTP: Long-term potentiation LTD: Long-term depression NLRP3: NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 BBB: Bloodbrain barrier BDNF: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor JNK: C-Jun N-terminal kinase P38 MAPK: P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase CREB: CAMP response element-binding protein ERK: Extracellular signal-regulated kinase NGF: Nerve growth factor NT-3: Neurotrophin-3 SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids FasL: Fas ligand DISC: Death-inducing signaling complex ER: Endoplasmic reticulum UPR: Unfolded protein response CHOP: C/EBP homologous protein AMPA: Alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid CaMKII: Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II PTSD: Post-traumatic stress disorder fMRI: Functional magnetic resonance imaging NE: Norepinephrine References Adams C, Conigrave JH, Lewohl J, Haber P, Morley KC (2020) Alcohol use disorder and circulating cytokines: a systematic review and meta-analysis