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Upon activation by toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), macrophages initiate the synthesis of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-), and other inflammatory biomarkers, resulting in further hepatic injury (Guilliams and Scott 2022)

Most of these counts come from nanoparticle tracking analysis, which counts every particle in a size range and cannot tell an intact, cargo-loaded exosome apart from a membrane fragment, a protein aggregate, or cellular debris

Zeltina A, Bowden TA, Lee B

doi: 10.3390/genes15101304 66 MenoldMMShaoYWolpertCMDonnellySLRaifordKLMartinERet al